Essentials of Glycobiology—Part 1 (Overview)

Larry A. Law

I have put together this 10-part series to explore the fundamental nature and structure of sugar—why carbohydrates were ignored by scientists in favor of protein and how sugar determines and governs the metabolic processes of life within viruses, bacteria, animals, and humans. I will explore some of the phenomenal discoveries and demonstrate how glycans overrule protein as it relates to the field of genetics (study of genes) and helped establish the field of epigenetics (control above the genes). We will even explore how sugar chains were used to create gain-of-function biological warfare in the last global pandemic. 

Glycobiology is the study of the structure, creation (biosynthesis), biology, and evolution of sugar chains (carbohydrates, saccharides or glycans) that are widely distributed in nature, in all life-forms. The National Academy of Science issued a 200-page publication in October 2012 titled, Transforming Glycoscience—A Roadmap for the Future. This landmark publication by the nation's top scientific institution directed the American educational system to focus intense effort in training future students in this obscure, but critical field of science. The timeline to meet this goal was ten years.

National Academy of Science (NAS) General Findings

The following is a list of scientific findings expressed in the NAS report. I will explain the significance and meaning associated with these findings later as we come across them specifically in this 10-part series. So, don't feel overwhelmed by the terminology.

1.  Glycans are the most abundant family of organic (living) molecules on the planet.
2.  The potential information glycans can convey vastly exceeds any other class of molecules.
3.  Every living cell on the planet is covered with a dense and complex array of glycans. It is called the glycocalyx or cell wall (in plants). Some cells do not have a nucleus, but all cells have a glycocalyx or cell wall.
4.  Every molecule, cell, or organism that interacts with a cell must do so via the glycocalyx or cell wall. 
5.  The vast majority of proteins (75% in humans) are attached or bound to glycans which modify or control the protein's behavior and function. 

National Academy of Science Health-Specific Findings

1.  Elimination of any single, major class of glycans from an organism results in death.
2.  Every disease affecting humans involves glycans.
3.  The vast majority of host-pathogen interactions involve glycans via recognition, degradation, or molecular mimicry. Molecular mimicry is defined as structural similarity between antigens, but coded by different genes. Antigens are substances that cause an immune response. Scientists suspect molecular mimicry as the mechanism by which microbes cause autoimmune disease.
4.  Most protein therapeutics (drugs) must by glycosylated properly to function effectively. For instance, some proteins do not fold correctly unless they are glycosylated. Glycosylation is the process by which a glycan is attached to proteins and lipids via a covalent bond where the atoms share electrons. 
5.  Altered glycosylation is a universal feature of cancer and contributes to pathogenesis (creation of cancer) and progression.
6.  Many vaccines rely on glycans engineered in the laboratory to function.