Attachment of the influenza virus to human cells requires sialic acid (one of the eight sugars). Avian (bird) flu prefers to bind to sialic acid attached to a galactose molecule via an alpha (2,3) link. Alpha (2,3) means that the second carbon atom in sialic acid is linked to the third carbon atom in galactose. Human flu prefers an alpha (2,6) link. Studies of flu pandemics from 1918, 1957, 1968, and 2009 suggest that these viruses successfully mutated from the alpha (2,3) link to the alpha (2,6) link. 

Multiple studies document that breast-fed babies have stronger immune systems, better intestinal health, healthier brain development, higher IQs, and more developed cognitive abilities than formula-fed babies. As nurses say, "breast is best!" Human breast milk contains these glycobiology sugars. They are critically different from what is found in cow's or goat's milk. Scientists initially thought these sugars only provided energy for the growing babies. They had no idea how pervasive and critical they were to the healthy development of a child. 

Discovering the power of glycobiology sugars on the ABO blood typing system represented my biggest aha moment.  Our blood is classified into four different groups: A, B, O, and AB. This classification is done based upon the different sugars surrounding the red blood cell (RBC). The medical community calls the effect of these sugars antigens because of how the immune system reacts to them. 

Glycobiology is the study of sugar. Most people have never heard of this science and would question why there needs to be an entire field of science dedicated to studying sugar. We all grew up believing sugar was just used for energy. Then, we learned that sugar can actually make us fat by way of a recently discovered (2010) biological process called de novo lipogenesis. 

​We have many misconceptions about the role of sugar in the body. Most of us know that too much sugar is bad and causes lots of problems. But, there are good sugars that surround every single cell in the human body. In fact, they surround every animal cell, line every plant cell wall, and surround every bacteria and virus too. Without these sugars, life could not exist. 

In the Essentials of Glycobiology ten-part series (June 18 - August 20, 2024), I covered the foundational elements of glycobiology documented by the National Academy of Science in their October 2012 publication, Transforming Glycoscience—A Roadmap for the Future. In this current 16-part series, starting tooday, I will discuss the absolutely fascinating aspects of glycobiology and how they determine, explain, and relate to human health. 

The word 'immunosenescence' is very intimidating just by itself. The word describes the process of how our immune system degrades with age. The organs of the lymphatic system, where so many of the immune system cells are created and housed, change in the elderly. That is why flu and COVID-19 respiratory illnesses dramatically affect older folks rather than the young. As people age, both adaptive and innate immune systems tend to lose efficacy over time, leading to difficulties mounting immune responses against new pathogens. Consequently, many diseases, including cancer, tend to occur amongst the elderly. Apoptosis (depicted in the illustration at the right) fails to work properly and cancerous cells grow in number and strength. 

Crickets are readily available in pet stores as food for turtles, frogs and other pets, but for human food? In many countries, they are considered delicacies or snacks. Even in the United States, cricket flour is now commonly found in protein bars, baked goods and protein powders. Acheta domesticus (Acheta) is the scientific name for crickets and what you want to look for on the ingredients list of the protein bar if you want to avoid eating them. 

Dr. Weston Price was a nutrition researcher. He and his wife traveled around the world during the 1930s like Indiana Jones, visiting 14 countries and 5 continents, investigating and documenting with photographs the indigenous populations. He proved his theory that if people ate their native ethnic diet in an unprocessed form, they would have excellent mental, physical, and dental health. If they ate highly-processed foods (modern, western civilization foods), their health would deteriorate dramatically. He published his landmark book Nutrition and Physical Degeneration in 1939. The Price-Pottenger.org continues his legacy.

Tim Kennedy brilliantly observed that "Saying 'trust the science' is the most anti-science thing you can say. Questioning everything particularly the results is how you do science." Dr. Fauci tried pathetically to make himself equal to science during the pandemic. His appeal to his own medical authority and the ways he manipulated the medical system to achieve his objectives and blind the public to the truth are not new. I will highlight 5 plays documented by the Union of Concerned Scientists which Fauci used to deceive and damage public trust, health, and safety.

Have you ever heard of galectin-3? It is a glycoprotein that binds to the sugar galactose on a myriad of cell receptors. The picture at the right lists some of the organs and areas of the body on which this molecule is prevalent, as well as some of the biological functions affected. Below I'll shed a little light on this one molecule (without getting too technical) and explain how it interacts with several biological processes. It represents just one shining, unsung example in the science of glycobiology. ​